By [email protected]_84Posted on May 17, 2022 Leslie Lamport may not be a household name, but he’s behind a few of them for computer scientists: the typesetting program LaTeX and the work that made cloud infrastructure at Google and Amazon possible. He’s also brought more attention to a handful of problems, giving them distinctive names like the bakery algorithm and the Byzantine Generals Problem. This is no accident. The 81-year-old computer scientist is unusually thoughtful about how people use and think about software. In 2013, he won the A.M. Turing Award, considered the Nobel Prize of computing, for his work on distributed systems, where multiple components on different networks coordinate to achieve a common objective. Internet searches, cloud computing and artificial intelligence all involve orchestrating legions of powerful computing machines to work together. Of course, this kind of coordination opens you up to more problems. “A distributed system is one in which the failure of a computer you didn’t even know existed can render your own computer unusable,” Lamport once said. Among the biggest sources of problems are “concurrent systems,” where multiple computing operations happen during overlapping slices of time, leading to ambiguity: Which computer’s clock is the right one? In a seminal 1978 paper, Lamport introduced the notion of “causality” to solve this issue, using an insight from special relativity. Two observers may disagree on the order of events, but if one event causes another, that eliminates the ambiguity. And sending or receiving a message can establish causality among multiple processes. Logical clocks — now also called Lamport clocks — provided a standard way to reason about concurrent systems. With this tool in hand, computer scientists next wondered how they could systematically make these connected computers even bigger, without adding bugs. Lamport came up with an elegant solution: Paxos, a “consensus algorithm” that allows multiple computers to execute complex tasks. Without Paxos and its family of algorithms, modern computing could not exist. rnu003cscript>rnfunction getCookie(name) {rn let value = “; ” + document.cookie;rn var parts = value.split(“; ” + name + “=”);rn if (parts.length === 2) return parts.pop().split(“;”).shift();rn}rnrnif(getCookie(‘acceptedPolicy’)) {rn// google analyticsrn(function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i[‘GoogleAnalyticsObject’]=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){rn(i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o),rnm=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m)rn})(window,document,’script’,’https://www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js’,’ga’);rnga(‘create’, ‘UA-8526335-13’, ‘auto’);rnga(‘set’, ‘forceSSL’, true);rnga(‘require’, ‘displayfeatures’);rnga(‘send’,’pageview’);rnrn// facebook pixelrn!function(f,b,e,v,n,t,s)rn{if(f.fbq)return;n=f.fbq=function()rn{n.callMethod? n.callMethod.apply(n,arguments):n.queue.push(arguments)}rn;rnif(!f._fbq)f._fbq=n;n.push=n;n.loaded=!0;n.version=’2.0′;rnn.queue=[];t=b.createElement(e);t.async=!0;rnt.src=v;s=b.getElementsByTagName(e)[0];rns.parentNode.insertBefore(t,s)}(window,document,’script’,rn’https://connect.facebook.net/en_US/fbevents.js’);rnfbq(‘init’, ‘190747804793608’); rnfbq(‘track’, ‘PageView’);rnrn// chartbeatrnvar _sf_async_config = { uid: 65564, domain: ‘quantamagazine.org’, useCanonical: true };(function() {function loadChartbeat(){ window._sf_endpt = (new Date()).getTime(); var e = document.createElement(‘script’); e.setAttribute(‘language’, ‘javascript’); e.setAttribute(‘type’, ‘text/javascript’); e.setAttribute(‘src’,’//static.chartbeat.com/js/chartbeat.js’); document.body.appendChild(e); };var oldonload = window.onload;window.onload = (typeof window.onload != ‘function’) ?loadChartbeat : function(){ oldonload(); loadChartbeat(); };})();rnrn// parsleyrnconst head = document.getElementsByTagName(‘head’)[0];rnconst parsleyScript = document.createElement(“script”);rnparsleyScript.type = “text/javascript”;rnparsleyScript.src = “//cdn.parsely.com/keys/quantamagazine.org/p.js”;rnparsleyScript.id = “parsley-cfg”;rn// end parsleyrnrn//smartlookrn window.smartlook||(function(d) {rn var o=smartlook=function(){ o.api.push(arguments)},h=d.getElementsByTagName(‘head’)[0];rn var c=d.createElement(‘script’);o.api=new Array();c.async=true;c.type=”text/javascript”;rn c.charset=”utf-8″;c.src=”https://rec.smartlook.com/recorder.js”;h.appendChild(c);rn })(document);rn smartlook(‘init’, ‘3bac9c73fbc7f7f1c527d035a117e2b66f7c3e30’);rnrn// Google Ads conversionsrn window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || [];rn function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);}rn gtag(‘js’, new Date());rnrn gtag(‘config’, ‘AW-10788252298’);rnrn} else {rn(function(i,s,o,g,r,a,m){i[‘GoogleAnalyticsObject’]=r;i[r]=i[r]||function(){rn(i[r].q=i[r].q||[]).push(arguments)},i[r].l=1*new Date();a=s.createElement(o),rnm=s.getElementsByTagName(o)[0];a.async=1;a.src=g;m.parentNode.insertBefore(a,m)rn})(window,document,’script’,’https://www.google-analytics.com/analytics.js’,’ga’);rnga(‘create’, ‘UA-8526335-13’, { storage: ‘none’ });rnga(‘set’, ‘anonymizeIp’, true);rnga(‘set’, ‘forceSSL’, true);rnga(‘require’, ‘displayfeatures’);rnga(‘send’,’pageview’);rn}rnu003c/script>rn”,”google_analytics”:null,”tracking_scripts_no_cookie”:null,”google_analytics_no_cookie”:null,”popular_searches”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.popular_searches.0″,”typename”:”PopularSearch”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.popular_searches.1″,”typename”:”PopularSearch”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.popular_searches.2″,”typename”:”PopularSearch”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.popular_searches.3″,”typename”:”PopularSearch”}],”search_topics”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.0″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.1″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.2″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.3″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.4″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.5″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.6″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.7″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.8″,”typename”:”SearchTopic”}],”search_sections”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.0″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.1″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.2″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.3″,”typename”:”Term”}],”search_authors”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:38171″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:28087″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:29794″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:39302″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:56″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:29458″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:73″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:39164″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:59″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:8728″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:11648″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:42689″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:95″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:15493″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:450″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:36490″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:16315″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:2752″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:15492″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:68″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:62″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:13691″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:13684″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:50″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:15142″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:8084″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:742″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:11543″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:57″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:7262″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:70″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:19918″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:13695″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:32676″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:13724″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:26310″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:30207″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:19266″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:13251″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:17000″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:17149″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:5279″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:58″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:32612″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:27534″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:25173″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:64″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:47″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:14784″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:98″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:5830″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:6793″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:75″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:52″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:69″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:77″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:19092″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:20557″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:66″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:85″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:37141″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:12170″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:32″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:51″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:72″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:16475″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:91″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:10351″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:31716″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:1241″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:8463″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:49″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:16815″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:67″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:37462″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:87″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:36139″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:20556″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:90″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:39551″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:27374″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:40″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:38413″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:12570″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:38699″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:23451″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:79″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:38″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:60″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:2333″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:3569″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:414″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:20495″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:17147″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:30953″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:32437″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:38705″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:40613″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:7186″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:14093″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:34″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:23″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:74″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:19093″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:1472″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:6476″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:42264″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:10″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:37605″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:43298″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:37428″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:19962″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:24″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:1816″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:84″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:55″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:31″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:24011″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:100″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:2784″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:26114″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:9412″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:820″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:1666″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:20950″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:48″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:80″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:15681″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:24577″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:78″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:23845″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:83″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:35441″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:76″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:15680″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:7239″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:44197″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:65″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:5944″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:61″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:63″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:26311″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:71″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:17148″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:13356″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:17150″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:39768″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:2960″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:14785″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:3″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:54″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:88″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:12964″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:53″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:86″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:3244″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:89″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:15913″,”typename”:”AuthorList”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”AuthorList:42263″,”typename”:”AuthorList”}]},”$ROOT_QUERY.options”:{“acf”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf”,”typename”:”ThemeOptions”},”__typename”:”Options”},”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({“slug”:”computing-expert-says-programmers-need-more-math-20220517″,”type”:””}).data.0.acf”:{“custom_page_colors”:””,”page_accent_color”:null,”page_text_color”:null,”page_background_color”:null,”header_type”:”default”,”header_gradient_color”:null,”header_gradient_opacity”:null,”header_solid_colors”:””,”header_solid_primary_color”:null,”header_solid_secondary_color”:null,”header_solid_hover_color”:null,”header_transparent_colors”:null,”header_transparent_primary_color”:null,”header_transparent_secondary_color”:null,”header_transparent_hover_color”:null,”__typename”:”ACFFields”},”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({“slug”:”computing-expert-says-programmers-need-more-math-20220517″,”type”:””}).data.0″:{“acf”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({“slug”:”computing-expert-says-programmers-need-more-math-20220517″,”type”:””}).data.0.acf”,”typename”:”ACFFields”},”__typename”:”Post”},”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({“slug”:”computing-expert-says-programmers-need-more-math-20220517″,”type”:””})”:{“data”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({“slug”:”computing-expert-says-programmers-need-more-math-20220517″,”type”:””}).data.0″,”typename”:”Post”}],”__typename”:”PostPageArchive”},”$ROOT_QUERY.getPageMeta({“slug”:”computing-expert-says-programmers-need-more-math-20220517″,”type”:””})”:{“redirect_path”:null,”meta”:”nu003c!– The SEO Framework by Sybre Waaijer –>nu003cmeta name=”description” content=”Leslie Lamport revolutionized how computers talk to each other. Now he’s working on how engineers talk to their machines.” />rnu003cmeta property=”og:image” content=”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_1200_Social.jpg” />rnu003cmeta property=”og:image:width” content=”1200″ />rnu003cmeta property=”og:image:height” content=”630″ />rnu003cmeta property=”og:image:alt” content=”Outdoor photo of Leslie Lamport wearing a blue shirt with his hand up to his shoulder” />rnu003cmeta property=”og:locale” content=”en_US” />rnu003cmeta property=”og:type” content=”article” />rnu003cmeta property=”og:title” content=”Computing Expert Says Programmers Need More Math | Quanta Magazine” />rnu003cmeta property=”og:description” content=”Leslie Lamport revolutionized how computers talk to each other. Now he’s working on how engineers talk to their machines.” />rnu003cmeta property=”og:url” content=”https://www.quantamagazine.org/computing-expert-says-programmers-need-more-math-20220517/” />rnu003cmeta property=”og:site_name” content=”Quanta Magazine” />rnu003cmeta property=”article:publisher” content=”https://www.facebook.com/QuantaNews” />rnu003cmeta property=”fb:app_id” content=”533309373681765″ />rnu003cmeta property=”article:published_time” content=”2022-05-17T14:17+00:00″ />rnu003cmeta property=”article:modified_time” content=”2022-05-17T14:49+00:00″ />rnu003cmeta property=”og:updated_time” content=”2022-05-17T14:49+00:00″ />rnu003cmeta name=”twitter:card” content=”summary_large_image” />rnu003cmeta name=”twitter:site” content=”@QuantaMagazine” />rnu003cmeta name=”twitter:title” content=”Computing Expert Says Programmers Need More Math | Quanta Magazine” />rnu003cmeta name=”twitter:description” content=”Leslie Lamport revolutionized how computers talk to each other. Now he’s working on how engineers talk to their machines.” />rnu003cmeta name=”twitter:image” content=”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_1200_Social.jpg” />rnu003cmeta name=”twitter:image:width” content=”1200″ />rnu003cmeta name=”twitter:image:height” content=”630″ />rnu003cmeta name=”twitter:image:alt” content=”Outdoor photo of Leslie Lamport wearing a blue shirt with his hand up to his shoulder” />rnu003clink rel=”canonical” href=”https://www.quantamagazine.org/computing-expert-says-programmers-need-more-math-20220517/” />nu003cscript type=”application/ld+json”>{“@context”:”https://schema.org”,”@type”:”BreadcrumbList”,”itemListElement”:[{“@type”:”ListItem”,”position”:1,”item”:{“@id”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/”,”name”:”Quanta Magazine | Science and Math News”}},{“@type”:”ListItem”,”position”:2,”item”:{“@id”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/computer-science/”,”name”:”Computer Science News, Interviews and Columns From Quanta Magazine”}},{“@type”:”ListItem”,”position”:3,”item”:{“@id”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/computing-expert-says-programmers-need-more-math-20220517/”,”name”:”Computing Expert Says Programmers Need More Math”}}]}u003c/script>rnu003c!– / The SEO Framework by Sybre Waaijer | 6.35ms meta | 0.40ms boot –>nn”,”__typename”:”PageMeta”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.social_media_links.0″:{“type”:”facebook”,”label”:”Facebook”,”url”:”https://www.facebook.com/QuantaNews”,”__typename”:”SocialMediaLink”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.social_media_links.1″:{“type”:”twitter”,”label”:”Twitter”,”url”:”https://twitter.com/QuantaMagazine”,”__typename”:”SocialMediaLink”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.social_media_links.2″:{“type”:”youtube”,”label”:”YouTube”,”url”:”https://www.youtube.com/c/QuantaScienceChannel”,”__typename”:”SocialMediaLink”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.social_media_links.3″:{“type”:”instagram”,”label”:”Instagram”,”url”:”https://instagram.com/quantamag”,”__typename”:”SocialMediaLink”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.social_media_links.4″:{“type”:”rss”,”label”:”RSS”,”url”:”https://api.quantamagazine.org/feed/”,”__typename”:”SocialMediaLink”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.0″:{“title”:”The Joy of Why”,”slug”:”the-joy-of-why”,”description”:”The mathematician and author Steven Strogatz interviews leading researchers about the great scientific and mathematical questions of our time.”,”featured_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.0.featured_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”square_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.0.square_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”subscribe_itunes_link”:”https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/the-joy-of-why/id1608948873″,”subscribe_spotify_link”:”https://open.spotify.com/show/2FoxHraQSKwxV2HgUfwLMp”,”subscribe_android_link”:”https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9hcGkucXVhbnRhbWFnYXppbmUub3JnL2ZlZWQvdGhlLWpveS1vZi13aHk”,”subscribe_stitcher_link”:”https://www.stitcher.com/show/the-joy-of-why”,”__typename”:”Channel”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.0.featured_image”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoW_Quanta_2560x1440-1-1.jpg”,”width”:2560,”height”:1440,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.0.featured_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.0.featured_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoW_Quanta_2560x1440-1-1-520×293.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoW_Quanta_2560x1440-1-1-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoW_Quanta_2560x1440-1-1-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoW_Quanta_2560x1440-1-1-1720×968.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoW_Quanta_2560x1440-1-1-768×432.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoW_Quanta_2560x1440-1-1.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.0.square_image”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/Jaki-King-General-Quanta_600.jpg”,”width”:600,”height”:600,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.0.square_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.0.square_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/Jaki-King-General-Quanta_600-520×520.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/Jaki-King-General-Quanta_600-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/Jaki-King-General-Quanta_600-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/Jaki-King-General-Quanta_600.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/Jaki-King-General-Quanta_600.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/Jaki-King-General-Quanta_600.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.1″:{“title”:”Quanta Science Podcast”,”slug”:”podcast”,”description”:”In-depth news about mathematics, physics, biology and computer science. Read more at QuantaMagazine.org. “,”featured_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.1.featured_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”square_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.1.square_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”subscribe_itunes_link”:”https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/quanta-science-podcast/id1021340531?mt=2&ls=1″,”subscribe_spotify_link”:”https://open.spotify.com/show/7oKXOpbHzbICFUcJNbZ5wF?si=jdnj9sTHSD2bj4hDMFLKEA”,”subscribe_android_link”:”https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cucXVhbnRhbWFnYXppbmUub3JnL2ZlZWQvcG9kY2FzdC8″,”subscribe_stitcher_link”:”https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/quanta-magazine-2/quanta-magazine-podcast”,”__typename”:”Channel”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.1.featured_image”:{“alt”:null,”caption”:null,”url”:null,”width”:null,”height”:null,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.1.featured_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.1.featured_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:null,”square_small”:null,”square_large”:null,”medium”:null,”medium_large”:null,”large”:null,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.1.square_image”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/logo_Quanta-Podcast-3000×3000.jpg”,”width”:3000,”height”:3000,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.1.square_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.1.square_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/logo_Quanta-Podcast-3000×3000-520×520.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/logo_Quanta-Podcast-3000×3000-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/logo_Quanta-Podcast-3000×3000-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/logo_Quanta-Podcast-3000×3000-1720×1720.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/logo_Quanta-Podcast-3000×3000-768×768.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/logo_Quanta-Podcast-3000×3000-2880×2880.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.2″:{“title”:”The Joy of x”,”slug”:”the-joy-of-x”,”description”:”The acclaimed mathematician and author Steven Strogatz interviews some of the world’s leading scientists about their lives and work.”,”featured_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.2.featured_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”square_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.2.square_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”subscribe_itunes_link”:”https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/the-joy-of-x/id1495067186″,”subscribe_spotify_link”:”https://open.spotify.com/show/5HcCtKPH5gnOjRiMtTdC07?si=lFzCzat9QfuPU3hWuYibxQ”,”subscribe_android_link”:”https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9hcGkucXVhbnRhbWFnYXppbmUub3JnL2ZlZWQvdGhlLWpveS1vZi14Lw”,”subscribe_stitcher_link”:”https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/the-joy-of-x”,”__typename”:”Channel”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.2.featured_image”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1.jpg”,”width”:1920,”height”:1080,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.2.featured_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.2.featured_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1-520×293.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1-1720×968.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1-768×432.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.2.square_image”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600.jpg”,”width”:600,”height”:600,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.2.square_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.channels.2.square_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600-520×520.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.popular_searches.0″:{“term”:”math”,”label”:”Mathematics”,”__typename”:”PopularSearch”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.popular_searches.1″:{“term”:”physics”,”label”:”Physics”,”__typename”:”PopularSearch”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.popular_searches.2″:{“term”:”black holes”,”label”:”Black Holes”,”__typename”:”PopularSearch”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.popular_searches.3″:{“term”:”evolution”,”label”:”Evolution”,”__typename”:”PopularSearch”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.0″:{“type”:”Tag”,”label”:”Podcasts”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.0.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.0.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.0.tag”:{“name”:”podcast”,”slug”:”podcast”,”term_id”:”552″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.0.category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.1″:{“type”:”Tag”,”label”:”Columns”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.1.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.1.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.1.tag”:{“name”:”Quantized Columns”,”slug”:”quantized”,”term_id”:”551″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.1.category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.2″:{“type”:”Series”,”label”:”Series”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.2.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.2.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.2.tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.2.category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.3″:{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Interviews”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.3.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.3.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.3.tag”:{“name”:”Q&A”,”slug”:”qa”,”term_id”:”567″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.3.category”:{“name”:”Q&A”,”slug”:”qa”,”term_id”:”176″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.4″:{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Multimedia”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.4.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.4.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.4.tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.4.category”:{“name”:”Multimedia”,”slug”:”multimedia”,”term_id”:”43″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.5″:{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Puzzles”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.5.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.5.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.5.tag”:{“name”:”puzzles”,”slug”:”puzzles”,”term_id”:”542″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.5.category”:{“name”:”Puzzles”,”slug”:”puzzles”,”term_id”:”546″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.6″:{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Blog Posts”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.6.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.6.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.6.tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.6.category”:{“name”:”Abstractions blog”,”slug”:”abstractions”,”term_id”:”619″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.7″:{“type”:”news”,”label”:”News Articles”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.7.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.7.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.7.tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.7.category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.8″:{“type”:”videos”,”label”:”Videos”,”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.8.tag”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.8.category”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.8.tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_topics.8.category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.0″:{“name”:”Mathematics”,”slug”:”mathematics”,”term_id”:”188″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.1″:{“name”:”Physics”,”slug”:”physics”,”term_id”:”189″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.2″:{“name”:”Biology”,”slug”:”biology”,”term_id”:”191″,”__typename”:”Term”},”$ROOT_QUERY.options.acf.search_sections.3″:{“name”:”Computer Science”,”slug”:”computer-science”,”term_id”:”190″,”__typename”:”Term”},”AuthorList:38171″:{“id”:”38171″,”name”:”Adam Becker”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:28087″:{“id”:”28087″,”name”:”Adam Mann”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:29794″:{“id”:”29794″,”name”:”Alex Kontorovich”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:39302″:{“id”:”39302″,”name”:”Alexander Hellemans”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:56″:{“id”:”56″,”name”:”Alla Katsnelson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:29458″:{“id”:”29458″,”name”:”Allison Whitten”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:73″:{“id”:”73″,”name”:”Amanda Gefter”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:39164″:{“id”:”39164″,”name”:”Ana Kova”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:59″:{“id”:”59″,”name”:”Andreas von Bubnoff”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:8728″:{“id”:”8728″,”name”:”Anil Ananthaswamy”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:11648″:{“id”:”11648″,”name”:”Ann Finkbeiner”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:42689″:{“id”:”42689″,”name”:”Annie Melchor”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:95″:{“id”:”95″,”name”:”Ariel Bleicher”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:15493″:{“id”:”15493″,”name”:”Ashley Smart”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:450″:{“id”:”450″,”name”:”Ashley Yeager”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:36490″:{“id”:”36490″,”name”:”Ben Brubaker”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:16315″:{“id”:”16315″,”name”:”Bill Andrews”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:2752″:{“id”:”2752″,”name”:”Bob Henderson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:15492″:{“id”:”15492″,”name”:”Brendan Z. Foster”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:68″:{“id”:”68″,”name”:”Brooke Borel”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:62″:{“id”:”62″,”name”:”Carl Zimmer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:13691″:{“id”:”13691″,”name”:”Caroline Lee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:13684″:{“id”:”13684″,”name”:”Caroline Lee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:50″:{“id”:”50″,”name”:”Carrie Arnold”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:15142″:{“id”:”15142″,”name”:”Chanda Prescod-Weinstein”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:8084″:{“id”:”8084″,”name”:”Charlie Wood”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:742″:{“id”:”742″,”name”:”Christie Wilcox”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:11543″:{“id”:”11543″,”name”:”Claudia Dreifus”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:57″:{“id”:”57″,”name”:”Courtney Humphries”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:7262″:{“id”:”7262″,”name”:”Dalmeet Singh Chawla”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:70″:{“id”:”70″,”name”:”Dan Falk”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:19918″:{“id”:”19918″,”name”:”Dana Najjar”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:13695″:{“id”:”13695″,”name”:”Daniel Garisto”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:32676″:{“id”:”32676″,”name”:”Daniel S. Freed”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:13724″:{“id”:”13724″,”name”:”David H. Freedman”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:26310″:{“id”:”26310″,”name”:”David S. Richeson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:30207″:{“id”:”30207″,”name”:”David Tse”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:19266″:{“id”:”19266″,”name”:”Devin Powell”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:13251″:{“id”:”13251″,”name”:”Diana Kwon”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:17000″:{“id”:”17000″,”name”:”Elena Renken”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:17149″:{“id”:”17149″,”name”:”Elizabeth Landau”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:5279″:{“id”:”5279″,”name”:”Elizabeth Preston”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:58″:{“id”:”58″,”name”:”Elizabeth Svoboda”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:32612″:{“id”:”32612″,”name”:”Ellen Horne”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:27534″:{“id”:”27534″,”name”:”Emily Buder”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:25173″:{“id”:”25173″,”name”:”Emily Levesque”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:64″:{“id”:”64″,”name”:”Emily Singer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:47″:{“id”:”47″,”name”:”Erica Klarreich”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:14784″:{“id”:”14784″,”name”:”Erika K. Carlson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:98″:{“id”:”98″,”name”:”Esther Landhuis”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:5830″:{“id”:”5830″,”name”:”Eva Silverstein”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:6793″:{“id”:”6793″,”name”:”Evelyn Lamb”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:75″:{“id”:”75″,”name”:”Ferris Jabr”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:52″:{“id”:”52″,”name”:”Frank Wilczek”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:69″:{“id”:”69″,”name”:”Gabriel Popkin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:77″:{“id”:”77″,”name”:”George Musser”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:19092″:{“id”:”19092″,”name”:”Grant Sanderson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:20557″:{“id”:”20557″,”name”:”Howard Lee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:66″:{“id”:”66″,”name”:”Ingrid Daubechies”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:85″:{“id”:”85″,”name”:”Ivan Amato”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:37141″:{“id”:”37141″,”name”:”Jake Buehler”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:12170″:{“id”:”12170″,”name”:”Janna Levin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:32″:{“id”:”32″,”name”:”Jeanette Kazmierczak”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:51″:{“id”:”51″,”name”:”Jennifer Ouellette”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:72″:{“id”:”72″,”name”:”John Pavlus”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:16475″:{“id”:”16475″,”name”:”John Preskill”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:91″:{“id”:”91″,”name”:”John Rennie”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:10351″:{“id”:”10351″,”name”:”Jonathan Lambert”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:31716″:{“id”:”31716″,”name”:”Jonathan O’Callaghan”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:1241″:{“id”:”1241″,”name”:”Jordana Cepelewicz”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:8463″:{“id”:”8463″,”name”:”Joshua Roebke”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:49″:{“id”:”49″,”name”:”Joshua Sokol”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:16815″:{“id”:”16815″,”name”:”jye”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:67″:{“id”:”67″,”name”:”K.C. Cole”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:37462″:{“id”:”37462″,”name”:”Karmela Padavic-Callaghan”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:87″:{“id”:”87″,”name”:”Kat McGowan”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:36139″:{“id”:”36139″,”name”:”Katarina Zimmer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:20556″:{“id”:”20556″,”name”:”Katherine Harmon Courage”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:90″:{“id”:”90″,”name”:”Katia Moskvitch”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:39551″:{“id”:”39551″,”name”:”Katie McCormick”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:27374″:{“id”:”27374″,”name”:”Kelsey Houston-Edwards”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:40″:{“id”:”40″,”name”:”Kevin Hartnett”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:38413″:{“id”:”38413″,”name”:”Lakshmi Chandrasekaran”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:12570″:{“id”:”12570″,”name”:”Laura Poppick”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:38699″:{“id”:”38699″,”name”:”Leila Sloman”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:23451″:{“id”:”23451″,”name”:”Liam Drew”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:79″:{“id”:”79″,”name”:”Liz Kruesi”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:38″:{“id”:”38″,”name”:”Lucy Reading-Ikkanda”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:60″:{“id”:”60″,”name”:”Maggie McKee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:2333″:{“id”:”2333″,”name”:”Mallory Locklear”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:3569″:{“id”:”3569″,”name”:”Marcus Woo”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:414″:{“id”:”414″,”name”:”Mark Kim-Mulgrew”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:20495″:{“id”:”20495″,”name”:”Matt Carlstrom”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:17147″:{“id”:”17147″,”name”:”Matthew Hutson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:30953″:{“id”:”30953″,”name”:”Max G. Levy”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:32437″:{“id”:”32437″,”name”:”Max Kozlov”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:38705″:{“id”:”38705″,”name”:”mcho”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:40613″:{“id”:”40613″,”name”:”Melanie Mitchell”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:7186″:{“id”:”7186″,”name”:”Melinda Wenner Moyer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:14093″:{“id”:”14093″,”name”:”Michael Harris”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:34″:{“id”:”34″,”name”:”Michael Kranz”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:23″:{“id”:”23″,”name”:”Michael Moyer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:74″:{“id”:”74″,”name”:”Michael Nielsen”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:19093″:{“id”:”19093″,”name”:”Michele Bannister”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:1472″:{“id”:”1472″,”name”:”Moira Chas”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:6476″:{“id”:”6476″,”name”:”Monique Brouillette”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:42264″:{“id”:”42264″,”name”:”Mordechai Rorvig”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:10″:{“id”:”10″,”name”:”Natalie Wolchover”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:37605″:{“id”:”37605″,”name”:”Nick Thieme”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:43298″:{“id”:”43298″,”name”:”Nicole Yunger Halpern”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:37428″:{“id”:”37428″,”name”:”Nima Arkani-Hamed”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:19962″:{“id”:”19962″,”name”:”Nola Taylor Redd”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:24″:{“id”:”24″,”name”:”Olena Shmahalo”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:1816″:{“id”:”1816″,”name”:”Patrick Honner”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:84″:{“id”:”84″,”name”:”Peter Byrne”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:55″:{“id”:”55″,”name”:”Philip Ball”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:31″:{“id”:”31″,”name”:”Pradeep Mutalik”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:24011″:{“id”:”24011″,”name”:”Puja Changoiwala”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:100″:{“id”:”100″,”name”:”Quanta Magazine”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:2784″:{“id”:”2784″,”name”:”R. Douglas Fields”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:26114″:{“id”:”26114″,”name”:”Rachel Crowell”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:9412″:{“id”:”9412″,”name”:”Raleigh McElvery”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:820″:{“id”:”820″,”name”:”Ramin Skibba”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:1666″:{“id”:”1666″,”name”:”Rebecca Boyle”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:20950″:{“id”:”20950″,”name”:”Richard Masland”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:48″:{“id”:”48″,”name”:”Robbert Dijkgraaf”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:80″:{“id”:”80″,”name”:”Roberta Kwok”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:15681″:{“id”:”15681″,”name”:”Robin George Andrews”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:24577″:{“id”:”24577″,”name”:”Rodrigo Pérez Ortega”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:78″:{“id”:”78″,”name”:”Sabine Hossenfelder”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:23845″:{“id”:”23845″,”name”:”Samuel Velasco”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:83″:{“id”:”83″,”name”:”Sarah Lewin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:35441″:{“id”:”35441″,”name”:”Scott Aaronson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:76″:{“id”:”76″,”name”:”Sean B. Carroll”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:15680″:{“id”:”15680″,”name”:”Sean Carroll”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:7239″:{“id”:”7239″,”name”:”Shannon Hall”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:44197″:{“id”:”44197″,”name”:”Sheon Han”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:65″:{“id”:”65″,”name”:”Siobhan Roberts”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:5944″:{“id”:”5944″,”name”:”Sophia Chen”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:61″:{“id”:”61″,”name”:”Steph Yin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:63″:{“id”:”63″,”name”:”Stephanie Bucklin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:26311″:{“id”:”26311″,”name”:”Stephanie DeMarco”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:71″:{“id”:”71″,”name”:”Stephen Ornes”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:17148″:{“id”:”17148″,”name”:”Steve Nadis”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:13356″:{“id”:”13356″,”name”:”Steven Strogatz”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:17150″:{“id”:”17150″,”name”:”Susan D’Agostino”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:39768″:{“id”:”39768″,”name”:”Tamar Lichter Blanks”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:2960″:{“id”:”2960″,”name”:”Tara C. Smith”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:14785″:{“id”:”14785″,”name”:”Thomas Lewton”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:3″:{“id”:”3″,”name”:”Thomas Lin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:54″:{“id”:”54″,”name”:”Tim Vernimmen”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:88″:{“id”:”88″,”name”:”Tom Siegfried”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:12964″:{“id”:”12964″,”name”:”Vanessa Schipani”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:53″:{“id”:”53″,”name”:”Veronique Greenwood”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:86″:{“id”:”86″,”name”:”Virginia Hughes”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:3244″:{“id”:”3244″,”name”:”Viviane Callier”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:89″:{“id”:”89″,”name”:”Wynne Parry”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:15913″:{“id”:”15913″,”name”:”XiaoZhi Lim”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”AuthorList:42263″:{“id”:”42263″,”name”:”Yasemin Saplakoglu”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”footer”}).items.0″:{“title”:”About Quanta”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/about/”,”order”:1,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”footer”}).items.1″:{“title”:”Archive”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/archive”,”order”:2,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”footer”}).items.2″:{“title”:”Contact Us”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/contact-us/”,”order”:3,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”footer”}).items.3″:{“title”:”Terms & Conditions”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/terms-conditions/”,”order”:4,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”footer”}).items.4″:{“title”:”Privacy Policy”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/privacy-policy/”,”order”:5,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”footer”}).items.5″:{“title”:”Simons Foundation”,”url”:”http://www.simonsfoundation.org”,”order”:6,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”footer”})”:{“items”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”footer”}).items.0″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”footer”}).items.1″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”footer”}).items.2″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”footer”}).items.3″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”footer”}).items.4″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”footer”}).items.5″,”typename”:”MenuItem”}],”__typename”:”Menu”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”main-menu”}).items.0″:{“title”:”Physics”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/physics/”,”order”:1,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”main-menu”}).items.1″:{“title”:”Mathematics”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/mathematics/”,”order”:2,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”main-menu”}).items.2″:{“title”:”Biology”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/biology/”,”order”:3,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”main-menu”}).items.3″:{“title”:”Computer Science”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/computer-science/”,”order”:4,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”main-menu”}).items.4″:{“title”:”Topics”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/topics”,”order”:5,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”main-menu”}).items.5″:{“title”:”Archive”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/archive/”,”order”:6,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”main-menu”})”:{“items”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”main-menu”}).items.0″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”main-menu”}).items.1″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”main-menu”}).items.2″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”main-menu”}).items.3″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”main-menu”}).items.4″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”main-menu”}).items.5″,”typename”:”MenuItem”}],”__typename”:”Menu”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.0″:{“title”:”Blog”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/abstractions/”,”order”:1,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.1″:{“title”:”Columns”,”url”:”/tag/quantized”,”order”:2,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.2″:{“title”:”Q&A”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/qa/”,”order”:3,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.3″:{“title”:”Puzzles”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/puzzles/”,”order”:4,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.4″:{“title”:”Videos”,”url”:”/videos”,”order”:5,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.5″:{“title”:”Multimedia”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/multimedia/”,”order”:6,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.6″:{“title”:”Podcasts”,”url”:”/podcasts/”,”order”:7,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.7″:{“title”:”About Quanta”,”url”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/about/”,”order”:8,”__typename”:”MenuItem”},”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”})”:{“items”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.0″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.1″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.2″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.3″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.4″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.5″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.6″,”typename”:”MenuItem”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.menu({“slug”:”secondary-menu”}).items.7″,”typename”:”MenuItem”}],”__typename”:”Menu”},”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({“slug”:”computing-expert-says-programmers-need-more-math-20220517″})”:{“type”:”post”,”meta”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({“slug”:”computing-expert-says-programmers-need-more-math-20220517″}).meta”,”typename”:”PageData”},”data”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”Post:114927″,”typename”:”Post”}],”__typename”:”PostPageArchive”},”$ROOT_QUERY.getPostPageArchive({“slug”:”computing-expert-says-programmers-need-more-math-20220517″}).meta”:{“title”:”Computing Expert Says Programmers Need More Math | Quanta Magazine”,”max_num_pages”:0,”author”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”Author:null”,”typename”:”Author”},”tag”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”Term:null”,”typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”Term:null”,”typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”PageData”},”Author:null”:{“id”:null,”name”:null,”link”:null,”description”:null,”url”:null,”public_email”:null,”facebook”:null,”twitter”:null,”instagram”:null,”acf”:null,”__typename”:”Author”},”Term:null”:{“id”:null,”slug”:null,”name”:null,”link”:null,”description”:null,”image”:””,”__typename”:”Term”},”Post:114927″:{“id”:”114927″,”title”:”How to Write Software With Mathematical Perfection”,”excerpt”:”u003cp>Leslie Lamport revolutionized how computers talk to each other. Now he’s working on how engineers talk to their machines. u003c/p>n”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/computing-expert-says-programmers-need-more-math-20220517/”,”slug”:”computing-expert-says-programmers-need-more-math-20220517″,”disqus”:”114927 https://www.quantamagazine.org/?p=114927″,”date”:”2022-05-17T10:17:04″,”featured_media_image”:null,”authors”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”Post:114927.authors.0″,”typename”:”Author”}],”tags”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”Post:114927.tags.0″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”Post:114927.tags.1″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”Post:114927.tags.2″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”Post:114927.tags.3″,”typename”:”Term”}],”podcast”:null,”acf”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf”,”typename”:”ACFFields”},”__typename”:”Post”,”status”:”publish”,”content”:””,”categories”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”Term:190″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:false,”id”:”Term:176″,”typename”:”Term”}],”attachments”:null,”series_prev”:null,”series_next”:null,”next”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.next”,”typename”:”PostPageArchive”}},”Post:114927.authors.0″:{“name”:”Sheon Han”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/authors/sheon-han/”,”__typename”:”Author”,”acf”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.authors.0.acf”,”typename”:”AuthorACF”}},”Post:114927.tags.0″:{“slug”:”computer-science”,”__typename”:”Term”,”name”:”computer science”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/tag/computer-science/”},”Post:114927.tags.1″:{“slug”:”computers”,”__typename”:”Term”,”name”:”computers”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/tag/computers/”},”Post:114927.tags.2″:{“slug”:”proofs”,”__typename”:”Term”,”name”:”proofs”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/tag/proofs/”},”Post:114927.tags.3″:{“slug”:”qa”,”__typename”:”Term”,”name”:”Q&A”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/tag/qa/”},”$Post:114927.acf”:{“featured_block_title”:””,”kicker”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.kicker”,”typename”:”Term”},”featured_image_default”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.featured_image_default”,”typename”:”Image”},”featured_image_square”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.featured_image_square”,”typename”:”Image”},”featured_image_full_width”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.featured_image_full_width”,”typename”:”Image”},”featured_image_gif”:false,”featured_video”:”false”,”full_page_interactive”:false,”podcast_publish_date”:””,”__typename”:”ACFFields”,”interactive_type”:null,”iframe_url”:null,”return_cursor”:null,”exclude_blurb”:null,”interactive_html”:null,”interactive_css”:null,”interactive_js”:null,”interactive_blurb”:null,”related_article”:null,”modules”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0″,”typename”:”ACFImageComponent”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.1″,”typename”:”ACFContent”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.2″,”typename”:”ACFVideo”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.3″,”typename”:”ACFContent”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.4″,”typename”:”ACFContent”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5″,”typename”:”ACFImageComponent”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.6″,”typename”:”ACFContent”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.7″,”typename”:”ACFContent”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8″,”typename”:”ACFImageComponent”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.9″,”typename”:”ACFContent”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10″,”typename”:”ACFImageComponent”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.11″,”typename”:”ACFContent”}],”template”:”article”,”subtitle”:”Leslie Lamport revolutionized how computers talk to each other. Now he’s working on how engineers talk to their machines. “,”title_layout”:”default”,”title_background_type”:null,”title_background_image”:null,”title_background_video”:null,”title_background_attribution”:null,”title_background_image_gif”:null,”title_overlay_enable”:null,”title_overlay_color”:null,”title_overlay_opacity”:null,”title_text_color”:null,”featured_image_attribution”:”u003cp>Talia Herman for Quanta Magazineu003c/p>n”,”featured_overlay_enable”:”false”,”featured_overlay_color”:null,”featured_overlay_opacity”:null,”series”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.series”,”typename”:”Term”},”intro_content”:null,”make_image_full_width”:null,”hide_ad_on_post”:false},”$Post:114927.acf.kicker”:{“name”:”Q&A”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/qa/”,”__typename”:”Term”},”$Post:114927.acf.featured_image_default”:{“alt”:”Outdoor photo of Leslie Lamport wearing a blue shirt with his hand up to his shoulder”,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_520x292.jpg”,”width”:520,”height”:292,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.featured_image_default.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.featured_image_default.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_520x292-520×292.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_520x292-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_520x292-520×292.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_520x292.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_520x292.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_520x292.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.featured_image_square”:{“alt”:”Outdoor photo of Leslie Lamport wearing a blue shirt with his hand up to his shoulder”,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_300.jpg”,”width”:300,”height”:300,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.featured_image_square.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.featured_image_square.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_300.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_300-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_300.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_300.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_300.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_300.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.featured_image_full_width”:{“alt”:”Outdoor photo of Leslie Lamport wearing a blue shirt with his hand up to his shoulder”,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_2880x1220_HP.jpg”,”width”:2880,”height”:1220,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.featured_image_full_width.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.featured_image_full_width.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_2880x1220_HP-520×220.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_2880x1220_HP-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_2880x1220_HP-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_2880x1220_HP-1720×729.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_2880x1220_HP-768×325.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_2880x1220_HP-2880×1220.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”Term:190″:{“id”:”190″,”name”:”Computer Science”,”slug”:”computer-science”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/computer-science/”,”__typename”:”Term”},”Term:176″:{“id”:”176″,”name”:”Q&A”,”slug”:”qa”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/qa/”,”__typename”:”Term”},”$Post:114927.authors.0.acf”:{“tagline”:”Contributing Writer”,”avatar”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.authors.0.acf.avatar”,”typename”:”Image”},”__typename”:”AuthorACF”},”$Post:114927.authors.0.acf.avatar”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/sheon_han.jpg”,”width”:1000,”height”:1000,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.authors.0.acf.avatar.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.authors.0.acf.avatar.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/sheon_han-520×520.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/sheon_han-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/sheon_han-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/sheon_han.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/sheon_han-768×768.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/sheon_han.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0″:{“hide_this_component”:null,”acf_fc_layout”:”image_component”,”layout”:”large”,”settings”:”large_margin”,”attribution”:”u003cp data-pm-slice=”1 1 []”>Talia Herman for Quanta Magazineu003c/p>n”,”caption”:”u003cp>Modern computers can effectively coordinate with each other because of the work of the computer scientist Leslie Lamport. He’s since turned his attention to making programming itself more efficient.u003c/p>n”,”mobile_comp_caption”:””,”mobile_comp_attribution”:””,”sets”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0″,”typename”:”ImageSet”}],”__typename”:”ACFImageComponent”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0″:{“settings”:””,”image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.mobile_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_side_margins”:false,”mobile_width_constraint”:””,”mobile_caption”:””,”mobile_attribution”:””,”zoom_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.zoom_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”zoom_caption”:””,”zoom_attribution”:””,”mobile_zoom_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_zoom_caption”:””,”mobile_zoom_attribution”:””,”external_link”:””,”__typename”:”ImageSet”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.image”:{“alt”:”Outdoor photo of Leslie Lamport wearing a blue shirt with his hand up to his shoulder”,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_2880x1620_Lede.jpg”,”width”:2880,”height”:1620,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_2880x1620_Lede-520×293.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_2880x1620_Lede-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_2880x1620_Lede-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_2880x1620_Lede-1720×968.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_2880x1620_Lede-768×432.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_2880x1620_Lede-2880×1620.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.mobile_image”:{“alt”:null,”caption”:null,”url”:null,”width”:null,”height”:null,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.mobile_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.mobile_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:null,”square_small”:null,”square_large”:null,”medium”:null,”medium_large”:null,”large”:null,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.zoom_image”:{“alt”:null,”caption”:null,”url”:null,”width”:null,”height”:null,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.zoom_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.zoom_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:null,”square_small”:null,”square_large”:null,”medium”:null,”medium_large”:null,”large”:null,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image”:{“alt”:null,”caption”:null,”url”:null,”width”:null,”height”:null,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.0.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:null,”square_small”:null,”square_large”:null,”medium”:null,”medium_large”:null,”large”:null,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.1″:{“hide_this_component”:null,”acf_fc_layout”:”content_area”,”show_sidebars”:true,”content”:”u003cp>u003ca href=”http://www.lamport.org/”>Leslie Lamportu003c/a> may not be a household name, but he’s behind a few of them for computer scientists: the typesetting program LaTeX and the work that made cloud infrastructure at Google and Amazon possible. He’s also brought more attention to a handful of problems, giving them distinctive names like the bakery algorithm and the Byzantine Generals Problem. This is no accident. The 81-year-old computer scientist is unusually thoughtful about how people use and think about software.u003c/p>nu003cp>In 2013, he won the A.M. Turing Award, considered the Nobel Prize of computing, for his work on distributed systems, where multiple components on different networks coordinate to achieve a common objective. Internet searches, cloud computing and artificial intelligence all involve orchestrating legions of powerful computing machines to work together. Of course, this kind of coordination opens you up to more problems.u003c/p>nu003cp>“A distributed system is one in which the failure of a computer you didn’t even know existed can render your own computer unusable,” Lamport once said.u003c/p>nu003cp>Among the biggest sources of problems are “concurrent systems,” where multiple computing operations happen during overlapping slices of time, leading to ambiguity: Which computer’s clock is the right one? In a seminal u003ca href=”https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/359545.359563″>1978 paperu003c/a>, Lamport introduced the notion of “causality” to solve this issue, using an insight from special relativity. Two observers may disagree on the order of events, but if one event causes another, that eliminates the ambiguity. And sending or receiving a message can establish causality among multiple processes. Logical clocks — now also called Lamport clocks — provided a standard way to reason about concurrent systems.u003c/p>nu003cp>With this tool in hand, computer scientists next wondered how they could systematically make these connected computers even bigger, without adding bugs. Lamport came up with an elegant solution: Paxos, a “consensus algorithm” that allows multiple computers to execute complex tasks. Without Paxos and its family of algorithms, modern computing could not exist.u003c/p>n”,”fadein”:false,”__typename”:”ACFContent”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.2″:{“hide_this_component”:null,”acf_fc_layout”:”video”,”layout”:”large”,”youtube_id”:”rkZzg7Vowao”,”caption”:”u003cp>Leslie Lamport talks about the importance of programming instead of coding, how he developed distributed systems and his favorite algorithm.u003c/p>n”,”attribution”:”u003cp>Photo by Talia Herman for Quanta Magazine; video by Emily Buder and Marcos Rocha for Quanta Magazineu003c/p>n”,”autoplay”:false,”fadein”:false,”loop”:false,”video_type”:”existing”,”cover_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.2.cover_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”__typename”:”ACFVideo”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.2.cover_image”:{“alt”:””,”height”:1080,”width”:1920,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_Video_Cover-1.jpg”,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.2.cover_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.2.cover_image.sizes”:{“medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_Video_Cover-1-1720×968.jpg”,”medium_width”:1720,”medium_height”:968,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_Video_Cover-1-768×432.jpg”,”medium_large_width”:768,”medium_large_height”:432,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_Video_Cover-1.jpg”,”large_width”:1920,”large_height”:1080,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.3″:{“hide_this_component”:null,”acf_fc_layout”:”content_area”,”show_sidebars”:false,”content”:”u003cp>In the early 1980s, as he developed the field, Lamport also created LaTeX, a document preparation system that provides sophisticated ways to typeset complex formulas and format scientific documents. LaTeX has become the standard for formatting papers not only in math and computer science but also in most scientific domains.u003c/p>nu003cp>Lamport’s work since the 1990s has focused on “formal verification,” the use of mathematical proofs to verify the correctness of software and hardware systems. Notably, he created a “specification language” called u003ca href=”https://lamport.azurewebsites.net/tla/tla.html”>TLA+u003c/a> (for Temporal Logic of Actions). A software specification is like a blueprint or a recipe for a program; it describes how software should behave on a high level. It’s not always necessary, since coding a simple program is akin to just boiling an egg. But a more complicated task with higher stakes — the coding equivalent of a nine-course banquet — requires more precision. You need to prepare each component of each dish, combine them in a precise way, then serve them to every guest in the correct order. This requires exact recipes and instructions, written in unambiguous and succinct language, but descriptions written in English prose could leave room for misinterpretation. TLA+ employs the precise language of mathematics to prevent bugs and avoid design flaws.u003c/p>nu003cp>Using your recipe, or specification, as an input, a program called a model checker will check whether the recipe makes sense and works as intended, producing a dish the way the chef wants it. Lamport laments how programmers often cobble together a system before writing a proper specification, whereas chefs would never cater a banquet without first knowing that their recipes will work.u003c/p>nu003cp>u003cem>Quantau003c/em> spoke with Lamport about his work on distributed systems, what’s wrong with computer science education, and how using TLA+ can help programmers build better systems. The interview has been condensed and edited for clarity.u003c/p>n”,”fadein”:false,”__typename”:”ACFContent”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.4″:{“hide_this_component”:null,”acf_fc_layout”:”content_area”,”show_sidebars”:false,”content”:”u003ch3>u003cstrong>Let’s start with Paxos, since it’s such an influential algorithm. What made you start working on it in the first place?u003c/strong>u003c/h3>nu003cp>People were building a system with some code, and I had the hunch that what their code was trying to accomplish was impossible. So I decided to try to prove it, and instead came up with an algorithm that the people should have been using for their system.u003c/p>nu003ch3>u003cstrong>What was wrong with their original algorithm?u003c/strong>u003c/h3>nu003cp>Well, they didn’t have an algorithm, just a bunch of code. Very few programmers think in terms of algorithms. When trying to write a concurrent system, if you just code it without having algorithms, there’s no way that your program is not going to be full of bugs.u003c/p>n”,”fadein”:false,”__typename”:”ACFContent”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5″:{“hide_this_component”:null,”acf_fc_layout”:”image_component”,”layout”:”full”,”settings”:””,”attribution”:”u003cp data-pm-slice=”1 1 []”>Talia Herman for Quanta Magazineu003c/p>n”,”caption”:”u003cp>Lamport visits the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, Calif.u003c/p>n”,”mobile_comp_caption”:””,”mobile_comp_attribution”:””,”sets”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0″,”typename”:”ImageSet”}],”__typename”:”ACFImageComponent”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0″:{“settings”:””,”image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.mobile_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_side_margins”:false,”mobile_width_constraint”:””,”mobile_caption”:””,”mobile_attribution”:””,”zoom_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.zoom_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”zoom_caption”:””,”zoom_attribution”:””,”mobile_zoom_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_zoom_caption”:””,”mobile_zoom_attribution”:””,”external_link”:””,”__typename”:”ImageSet”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.image”:{“alt”:”Photo of Leslie Lamport in a blue shirt and jeans standing in front of a brightly lit museum exhibit showing early computers”,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_1.jpg”,”width”:2800,”height”:1617,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_1-520×300.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_1-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_1-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_1-1720×993.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_1-768×444.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_1.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.mobile_image”:{“alt”:null,”caption”:null,”url”:null,”width”:null,”height”:null,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.mobile_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.mobile_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:null,”square_small”:null,”square_large”:null,”medium”:null,”medium_large”:null,”large”:null,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.zoom_image”:{“alt”:null,”caption”:null,”url”:null,”width”:null,”height”:null,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.zoom_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.zoom_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:null,”square_small”:null,”square_large”:null,”medium”:null,”medium_large”:null,”large”:null,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image”:{“alt”:null,”caption”:null,”url”:null,”width”:null,”height”:null,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.5.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:null,”square_small”:null,”square_large”:null,”medium”:null,”medium_large”:null,”large”:null,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.6″:{“hide_this_component”:null,”acf_fc_layout”:”content_area”,”show_sidebars”:false,”content”:”u003cp>u003ca href=”https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/279227.279229″>u003cstrong>The paperu003c/strong>u003c/a>u003cstrong> that introduced Paxos wasn’t very widely read at first. Why was that? u003c/strong>u003c/p>nu003cp>What made it impossible for people to read the paper was that I like explaining things with stories, and I made up names for characters in sort of pseudo-Greek letters. For example, in the paper there was a cheese inspector named Γωυδα. Having grown up as a mathematician, where Greek letters were used all over the place, I was just unaware that nonmathematicians get completely freaked out by those letters. Apparently, the readers couldn’t deal with it, and it caused that paper not to be read as it should have been.u003c/p>nu003cp>So that didn’t work as well at first. Although in the long run it did, because people call this family of consensus algorithms Paxos instead of “viewstamped replication,” which was another name for the same algorithm from [the computer scientist] u003ca href=”https://www.quantamagazine.org/barbara-liskov-is-the-architect-of-modern-algorithms-20191120/”>Barbara Liskovu003c/a>.u003c/p>nu003ch3>u003cstrong>After working on distributed systems for so many years, what got you into TLA+?u003c/strong>u003c/h3>nu003cp>In the 1970s, when people were reasoning about programs, they were proving properties of the program itself stated in terms of programming languages. Then people realized that they should really be stating what the program is supposed to accomplish first — the program’s behaviors.u003c/p>nu003cp>In the early 1980s, I realized that one practical method of writing these higher-level specifications for concurrent systems was writing them as abstract algorithms. With TLA+, I was able to express them mathematically in a completely rigorous fashion. And everything clicked. What that involves is basically not trying to write algorithms in a programming language: If you really want to do things right, you need to write your algorithm in the terms of mathematics.u003c/p>nu003cdiv id=’component-6283bbe23a228′ class=””>u003cscript type=”text/template”>{“type”:”Image”,”id”:”component-6283bbe23a228″,”data”:{“id”:114940,”src”:”https:\/\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Lamport_3.jpg”,”alt”:”Outdoor photo of Leslie Lamport in a blue shirt turned away from the camera, with trees and outdoor chairs in the background”,”class”:””,”width”:1220,”height”:1657,”mobileSrc”:false,”zoomSrc”:false,”mobileZoomSrc”:false,”align”:”align=\”inline\””,”wrapper_width”:””,”caption”:”u003cp>\u201cThe importance of thinking and writing before you code needs to be taught in undergraduate computer science courses and it\u2019s not,\u201d Lamport said.u003c\/p>\n”,”attribution”:”u003cp data-pm-slice=\”1 1 []\”>Talia Herman for Quanta Magazineu003c\/p>\n”,”variant”:”shortcode”,”size”:[“default”],”disableZoom”:false,”disableMobileZoom”:false,”srcImage”:{“ID”:114940,”id”:114940,”title”:”Lamport_3″,”filename”:”Lamport_3.jpg”,”filesize”:338280,”url”:”https:\/\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Lamport_3.jpg”,”link”:”https:\/\/www.quantamagazine.org\/computing-expert-says-programmers-need-more-math-20220517\/lamport_3\/”,”alt”:”Outdoor photo of Leslie Lamport in a blue shirt turned away from the camera, with trees and outdoor chairs in the background”,”author”:”42689″,”description”:””,”caption”:””,”name”:”lamport_3″,”status”:”inherit”,”uploaded_to”:114927,”date”:”2022-05-16 19:15:13″,”modified”:”2022-05-16 19:28:53″,”menu_order”:0,”mime_type”:”image\/jpeg”,”type”:”image”,”subtype”:”jpeg”,”icon”:”https:\/\/api.quantamagazine.org\/wp-includes\/images\/media\/default.png”,”width”:1220,”height”:1657,”sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https:\/\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Lamport_3-383×520.jpg”,”thumbnail-width”:383,”thumbnail-height”:520,”medium”:”https:\/\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Lamport_3.jpg”,”medium-width”:1220,”medium-height”:1657,”medium_large”:”https:\/\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Lamport_3-768×1043.jpg”,”medium_large-width”:768,”medium_large-height”:1043,”large”:”https:\/\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Lamport_3.jpg”,”large-width”:1220,”large-height”:1657,”square_small”:”https:\/\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Lamport_3-160×160.jpg”,”square_small-width”:160,”square_small-height”:160,”square_large”:”https:\/\/d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net\/uploads\/2022\/05\/Lamport_3-520×520.jpg”,”square_large-width”:520,”square_large-height”:520}},”largeForPrint”:true,”externalLink”:””,”original_resolution”:false}}u003c/script>u003c/div>n”,”fadein”:false,”__typename”:”ACFContent”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.7″:{“hide_this_component”:null,”acf_fc_layout”:”content_area”,”show_sidebars”:false,”content”:”u003ch3>u003cstrong>You’ve said, “If you’re thinking without writing, you only think you’re thinking.” Is that where model checking comes in?u003c/strong>u003c/h3>nu003cp>Model checking is a method for exhaustively testing all executions of a small model of the system. It just shows the correctness of the model, not of the algorithm. While model checking tests for correctness, coding just produces code. It doesn’t test anything. Before there was model checking, the only way to be sure that your algorithm worked was to write a proof.u003c/p>nu003cp>In practice, model checking checks all executions of a small instance of the algorithm. And if you’re lucky, you can check large enough instances that it gives you enough confidence in the algorithm. But the proof can prove its correctness for a system of any size and for any use of the algorithm.u003c/p>nu003ch3>u003cstrong>It sounds like model checking is related to another method of program verification: u003c/strong>u003ca href=”https://www.quantamagazine.org/building-the-mathematical-library-of-the-future-20201001/”>u003cstrong>interactive theorem provingu003c/strong>u003c/a>u003cstrong> using tools such as Coq. How are they different?u003c/strong>u003c/h3>nu003cp>Coq was designed to do real mathematics and to be able to capture the reasoning that mathematicians do. It’s what Georges Gonthier used to prove the u003ca href=”https://www.quantamagazine.org/decades-old-graph-problem-yields-to-amateur-mathematician-20180417/”>four-color theoremu003c/a>, for example. A machine-checked proof of a mathematical statement shows that the statement is almost certainly true.u003c/p>nu003cp>TLA+ is designed not for mathematicians but for engineers who want to prove the properties of their systems. In the 1990s, after having spent about 15 years writing proofs of concurrent algorithms, I learned what you needed to do in order to prove the correctness of a concurrent algorithm. TLA was the logic that allowed it to be all completely formal. And TLA+ is the complete language based on that.u003c/p>n”,”fadein”:false,”__typename”:”ACFContent”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8″:{“hide_this_component”:null,”acf_fc_layout”:”image_component”,”layout”:”full”,”settings”:””,”attribution”:”u003cp data-pm-slice=”1 1 []”>Talia Herman for Quanta Magazineu003c/p>n”,”caption”:”u003cp>Lamport won the A.M. Turing Award in 2013 for his work on computer coordination, a field known as distributed systems. His Paxos algorithm is now an industry standard.u003c/p>n”,”mobile_comp_caption”:””,”mobile_comp_attribution”:””,”sets”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0″,”typename”:”ImageSet”}],”__typename”:”ACFImageComponent”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0″:{“settings”:””,”image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.mobile_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_side_margins”:false,”mobile_width_constraint”:””,”mobile_caption”:””,”mobile_attribution”:””,”zoom_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.zoom_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”zoom_caption”:””,”zoom_attribution”:””,”mobile_zoom_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_zoom_caption”:””,”mobile_zoom_attribution”:””,”external_link”:””,”__typename”:”ImageSet”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.image”:{“alt”:”Photo of Leslie Lamport in a blue shirt standing in front of a white wall”,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_4.jpg”,”width”:2800,”height”:1262,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_4-520×234.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_4-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_4-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_4-1720×775.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_4-768×346.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_4.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.mobile_image”:{“alt”:null,”caption”:null,”url”:null,”width”:null,”height”:null,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.mobile_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.mobile_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:null,”square_small”:null,”square_large”:null,”medium”:null,”medium_large”:null,”large”:null,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.zoom_image”:{“alt”:null,”caption”:null,”url”:null,”width”:null,”height”:null,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.zoom_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.zoom_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:null,”square_small”:null,”square_large”:null,”medium”:null,”medium_large”:null,”large”:null,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image”:{“alt”:null,”caption”:null,”url”:null,”width”:null,”height”:null,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.8.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:null,”square_small”:null,”square_large”:null,”medium”:null,”medium_large”:null,”large”:null,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.9″:{“hide_this_component”:null,”acf_fc_layout”:”content_area”,”show_sidebars”:false,”content”:”u003ch3>u003cstrong>Specification languages like TLA+ aren’t used very widely in industry, right? Why do you think that is?u003c/strong>u003c/h3>nu003cp>Well, u003ca href=”https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCajiu4Cj_GHOX0if3Up-eRA”>I’m doing what I canu003c/a>. But basically, programmers and many (if not most) computer scientists are terrified by math. So that’s a tough sell.u003c/p>nu003cp>Secondly, every project has to be done in a rush. There’s an old saying, “There’s never time to do it right. There’s always time to do it over.” Because TLA+ involves upfront effort, you’re adding a new step in the development process, and that’s also a hard sell.u003c/p>nu003ch3>u003cstrong>Is it always worth that upfront effort?u003c/strong>u003c/h3>nu003cp>True, most of the code written by programmers across the world doesn’t require very precise statements about what it’s supposed to do. But there are things that are important and need to be correct.u003c/p>nu003cp>When people build a chip, they want that chip to work right. When people build a cloud infrastructure, they don’t want bugs that will lose people’s data. For the kind of application where precision is important, you need to be very rigorous. And you need something like TLA+, especially if there’s concurrency involved, which there usually is in these systems.u003c/p>n”,”fadein”:false,”__typename”:”ACFContent”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10″:{“hide_this_component”:null,”acf_fc_layout”:”image_component”,”layout”:”large”,”settings”:””,”attribution”:”u003cp data-pm-slice=”1 1 []”>Talia Herman for Quanta Magazineu003c/p>n”,”caption”:”u003cp>The specification language TLA+, developed by Lamport over the past few decades, allows engineers to describe a program’s goals in a precise, mathematical way.u003c/p>n”,”mobile_comp_caption”:””,”mobile_comp_attribution”:””,”sets”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0″,”typename”:”ImageSet”}],”__typename”:”ACFImageComponent”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0″:{“settings”:””,”image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.mobile_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_side_margins”:false,”mobile_width_constraint”:””,”mobile_caption”:””,”mobile_attribution”:””,”zoom_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.zoom_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”zoom_caption”:””,”zoom_attribution”:””,”mobile_zoom_image”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image”,”typename”:”Image”},”mobile_zoom_caption”:””,”mobile_zoom_attribution”:””,”external_link”:””,”__typename”:”ImageSet”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.image”:{“alt”:”Photo of Leslie Lamport sitting at a counter using a black laptop”,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_5.jpg”,”width”:2200,”height”:994,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_5-520×235.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_5-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_5-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_5-1720×777.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_5-768×347.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Lamport_5.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.mobile_image”:{“alt”:null,”caption”:null,”url”:null,”width”:null,”height”:null,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.mobile_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.mobile_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:null,”square_small”:null,”square_large”:null,”medium”:null,”medium_large”:null,”large”:null,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.zoom_image”:{“alt”:null,”caption”:null,”url”:null,”width”:null,”height”:null,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.zoom_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.zoom_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:null,”square_small”:null,”square_large”:null,”medium”:null,”medium_large”:null,”large”:null,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image”:{“alt”:null,”caption”:null,”url”:null,”width”:null,”height”:null,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.10.sets.0.mobile_zoom_image.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:null,”square_small”:null,”square_large”:null,”medium”:null,”medium_large”:null,”large”:null,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.acf.modules.11″:{“hide_this_component”:null,”acf_fc_layout”:”content_area”,”show_sidebars”:false,”content”:”u003ch3>u003cstrong>Are programmers biased in terms of spending more time writing code than they do thinking about it?u003c/strong>u003c/h3>nu003cp>Yes, the importance of thinking and writing before you code needs to be taught in undergraduate computer science courses and it’s not. And the reason is that there’s no communication between the people who teach programming and the people who teach program verification.u003c/p>nu003cp>From what I’ve seen, the fault lies on both sides of that divide. The people who teach programming don’t know the verification that they need to know. The people who are teaching verification don’t understand how it should be applied and used in practice.u003c/p>nu003cp>Until that divide is bridged, TLA+ is not going to find a large number of users. I hope I could at least get the people who teach concurrent programming to understand that they need it. Then maybe there’s some hope.u003c/p>nu003ch3>u003cstrong>I get the sense that you aren’t too happy with computer science education these days. Is it because it doesn’t put enough emphasis on mathematics?u003c/strong>u003c/h3>nu003cp>On mathematical thinking, yeah.u003c/p>nu003cdiv id=’component-6283bbe243c23′ class=”related-list”>u003cscript type=”text/template”>{“type”:”LinkList”,”id”:”component-6283bbe243c23″,”data”:{“title”:”Related:”,”class”:”related-list”,”links”:[{“type”:”internal”,”link”:”https:\/\/www.quantamagazine.org\/computer-scientist-donald-knuth-cant-stop-telling-stories-20200416\/”,”title”:”The Computer Scientist Who Can\u2019t Stop Telling Stories”},{“type”:”internal”,”link”:”https:\/\/www.quantamagazine.org\/barbara-liskov-is-the-architect-of-modern-algorithms-20191120\/”,”title”:”The Architect of Modern Algorithms”},{“type”:”internal”,”link”:”https:\/\/www.quantamagazine.org\/how-close-are-computers-to-automating-mathematical-reasoning-20200827\/”,”title”:”How Close Are Computers to Automating Mathematical Reasoning?”},{“type”:”internal”,”link”:”https:\/\/www.quantamagazine.org\/building-the-mathematical-library-of-the-future-20201001\/”,”title”:”Building the Mathematical Library of the Future”}]}}u003c/script>u003c/div>nu003ch3>u003cstrong>How would you structure an undergraduate curriculum, then?u003c/strong>u003c/h3>nu003cp>I’m not an educator, so I don’t know how to teach it to them. But I know what people should have learned. They shouldn’t be afraid of math. It’s just simple math that they’ve probably taken a course in, but they don’t know how to use it. They don’t know what good it is. They learn enough to pass the exam and then they forget about it.u003c/p>nu003ch3>u003cstrong>Mathematicians often say they see beauty in math. You started out in that field, so do you see beauty in algorithms? u003c/strong>u003c/h3>nu003cp>I don’t think in terms of aesthetics. I probably have the kinds of feelings that other people do, but I just use different words to express them. Being beautiful is not something I would say about an algorithm. But simplicity is something that I value highly.u003c/p>nu003ch3>u003cstrong>One last thing, about another side project of yours with a sizable impact: LaTeX. I’d like to finally clear something up with the creator. Is it pronounced LAH-tekh or LAY-tekh? u003c/strong>u003c/h3>nu003cp>Any way you want. I don’t advise spending very much time thinking about it.u003c/p>n”,”fadein”:false,”__typename”:”ACFContent”},”$Post:114927.acf.series”:{“name”:null,”link”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”$Post:114927.next.data.0″:{“title”:”Puzzling Quantum Scenario Appears Not to Conserve Energy”,”link”:”https://www.quantamagazine.org/puzzling-quantum-scenario-appears-not-to-conserve-energy-20220516/”,”categories”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.next.data.0.categories.0″,”typename”:”Term”},{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.next.data.0.categories.1″,”typename”:”Term”}],”featured_media_image”:null,”acf”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.next.data.0.acf”,”typename”:”ACFFields”},”__typename”:”Post”},”$Post:114927.next.data.0.categories.0″:{“slug”:”abstractions”,”__typename”:”Term”},”$Post:114927.next.data.0.categories.1″:{“slug”:”physics”,”__typename”:”Term”},”$Post:114927.next.data.0.acf”:{“template”:”article”,”featured_block_title”:””,”featured_image_gif”:false,”featured_image_default”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.next.data.0.acf.featured_image_default”,”typename”:”Image”},”featured_image_full_width”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.next.data.0.acf.featured_image_full_width”,”typename”:”Image”},”__typename”:”ACFFields”},”$Post:114927.next.data.0.acf.featured_image_default”:{“alt”:”Illustration of a glass box illuminated inside by a red lightbulb. A ray of green light shoots out of the box.”,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Conservation-of-Energy_520x292.jpg”,”width”:520,”height”:292,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.next.data.0.acf.featured_image_default.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.next.data.0.acf.featured_image_default.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Conservation-of-Energy_520x292-520×292.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Conservation-of-Energy_520x292-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Conservation-of-Energy_520x292-520×292.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Conservation-of-Energy_520x292.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Conservation-of-Energy_520x292.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Conservation-of-Energy_520x292.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.next.data.0.acf.featured_image_full_width”:{“alt”:”Illustration of a glass box illuminated inside by a red lightbulb. A ray of green light shoots out of the box.”,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Conservation-of-Energy_2880x1220_HP.jpg”,”width”:2880,”height”:1220,”sizes”:{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.next.data.0.acf.featured_image_full_width.sizes”,”typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”$Post:114927.next.data.0.acf.featured_image_full_width.sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Conservation-of-Energy_2880x1220_HP-520×220.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Conservation-of-Energy_2880x1220_HP-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Conservation-of-Energy_2880x1220_HP-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Conservation-of-Energy_2880x1220_HP-1720×729.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Conservation-of-Energy_2880x1220_HP-768×325.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/05/Conservation-of-Energy_2880x1220_HP-2880×1220.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”$Post:114927.next”:{“data”:[{“type”:”id”,”generated”:true,”id”:”$Post:114927.next.data.0″,”typename”:”Post”}],”__typename”:”PostPageArchive”}}rnnn”,”settings”:{“socialLinks”:[{“type”:”facebook”,”label”:”Facebook”,”url”:”https://www.facebook.com/QuantaNews”,”__typename”:”SocialMediaLink”},{“type”:”twitter”,”label”:”Twitter”,”url”:”https://twitter.com/QuantaMagazine”,”__typename”:”SocialMediaLink”},{“type”:”youtube”,”label”:”YouTube”,”url”:”https://www.youtube.com/c/QuantaScienceChannel”,”__typename”:”SocialMediaLink”},{“type”:”instagram”,”label”:”Instagram”,”url”:”https://instagram.com/quantamag”,”__typename”:”SocialMediaLink”},{“type”:”rss”,”label”:”RSS”,”url”:”https://api.quantamagazine.org/feed/”,”__typename”:”SocialMediaLink”}],”newsletterAction”:”https://quantamagazine.us1.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=0d6ddf7dc1a0b7297c8e06618&id=f0cb61321c”,”newsletterUrl”:”http://us1.campaign-archive2.com/home/?u=0d6ddf7dc1a0b7297c8e06618&id=f0cb61321c”,”sfNotice”:”An editorially independent publication supported by the Simons Foundation.”,”commentsHeader”:” Quanta Magazine moderates comments to facilitate an informed, substantive, civil conversation. Abusive, profane, self-promotional, misleading, incoherent or off-topic comments will be rejected. Moderators are staffed during regular business hours (New York time) and can only accept comments written in English. n”,”channels”:[{“title”:”The Joy of Why”,”slug”:”the-joy-of-why”,”description”:”The mathematician and author Steven Strogatz interviews leading researchers about the great scientific and mathematical questions of our time.”,”featured_image”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoW_Quanta_2560x1440-1-1.jpg”,”width”:2560,”height”:1440,”sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoW_Quanta_2560x1440-1-1-520×293.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoW_Quanta_2560x1440-1-1-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoW_Quanta_2560x1440-1-1-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoW_Quanta_2560x1440-1-1-1720×968.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoW_Quanta_2560x1440-1-1-768×432.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoW_Quanta_2560x1440-1-1.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”square_image”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/Jaki-King-General-Quanta_600.jpg”,”width”:600,”height”:600,”sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/Jaki-King-General-Quanta_600-520×520.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/Jaki-King-General-Quanta_600-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/Jaki-King-General-Quanta_600-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/Jaki-King-General-Quanta_600.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/Jaki-King-General-Quanta_600.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/Jaki-King-General-Quanta_600.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”subscribe_itunes_link”:”https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/the-joy-of-why/id1608948873″,”subscribe_spotify_link”:”https://open.spotify.com/show/2FoxHraQSKwxV2HgUfwLMp”,”subscribe_android_link”:”https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9hcGkucXVhbnRhbWFnYXppbmUub3JnL2ZlZWQvdGhlLWpveS1vZi13aHk”,”subscribe_stitcher_link”:”https://www.stitcher.com/show/the-joy-of-why”,”__typename”:”Channel”},{“title”:”Quanta Science Podcast”,”slug”:”podcast”,”description”:”In-depth news about mathematics, physics, biology and computer science. Read more at QuantaMagazine.org. “,”featured_image”:{“alt”:null,”caption”:null,”url”:null,”width”:null,”height”:null,”sizes”:{“thumbnail”:null,”square_small”:null,”square_large”:null,”medium”:null,”medium_large”:null,”large”:null,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”square_image”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/logo_Quanta-Podcast-3000×3000.jpg”,”width”:3000,”height”:3000,”sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/logo_Quanta-Podcast-3000×3000-520×520.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/logo_Quanta-Podcast-3000×3000-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/logo_Quanta-Podcast-3000×3000-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/logo_Quanta-Podcast-3000×3000-1720×1720.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/logo_Quanta-Podcast-3000×3000-768×768.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/logo_Quanta-Podcast-3000×3000-2880×2880.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”subscribe_itunes_link”:”https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/quanta-science-podcast/id1021340531?mt=2&ls=1″,”subscribe_spotify_link”:”https://open.spotify.com/show/7oKXOpbHzbICFUcJNbZ5wF?si=jdnj9sTHSD2bj4hDMFLKEA”,”subscribe_android_link”:”https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cucXVhbnRhbWFnYXppbmUub3JnL2ZlZWQvcG9kY2FzdC8″,”subscribe_stitcher_link”:”https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/quanta-magazine-2/quanta-magazine-podcast”,”__typename”:”Channel”},{“title”:”The Joy of x”,”slug”:”the-joy-of-x”,”description”:”The acclaimed mathematician and author Steven Strogatz interviews some of the world’s leading scientists about their lives and work.”,”featured_image”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1.jpg”,”width”:1920,”height”:1080,”sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1-520×293.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1-1720×968.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1-768×432.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JoX_Spheres_1920x1080-1.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”square_image”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600.jpg”,”width”:600,”height”:600,”sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600-520×520.jpg”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600-160×160.jpg”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600-520×520.jpg”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600.jpg”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600.jpg”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/03/JofX_podcast_logo-NEW-600.jpg”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”},”subscribe_itunes_link”:”https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/the-joy-of-x/id1495067186″,”subscribe_spotify_link”:”https://open.spotify.com/show/5HcCtKPH5gnOjRiMtTdC07?si=lFzCzat9QfuPU3hWuYibxQ”,”subscribe_android_link”:”https://podcasts.google.com/feed/aHR0cHM6Ly9hcGkucXVhbnRhbWFnYXppbmUub3JnL2ZlZWQvdGhlLWpveS1vZi14Lw”,”subscribe_stitcher_link”:”https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/the-joy-of-x”,”__typename”:”Channel”}],”popularSearches”:[{“term”:”math”,”label”:”Mathematics”,”__typename”:”PopularSearch”},{“term”:”physics”,”label”:”Physics”,”__typename”:”PopularSearch”},{“term”:”black holes”,”label”:”Black Holes”,”__typename”:”PopularSearch”},{“term”:”evolution”,”label”:”Evolution”,”__typename”:”PopularSearch”}],”searchTopics”:[{“type”:”Tag”,”label”:”Podcasts”,”tag”:{“name”:”podcast”,”slug”:”podcast”,”term_id”:”552″,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”Tag”,”label”:”Columns”,”tag”:{“name”:”Quantized Columns”,”slug”:”quantized”,”term_id”:”551″,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”Series”,”label”:”Series”,”tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Interviews”,”tag”:{“name”:”Q&A”,”slug”:”qa”,”term_id”:”567″,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:”Q&A”,”slug”:”qa”,”term_id”:”176″,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Multimedia”,”tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:”Multimedia”,”slug”:”multimedia”,”term_id”:”43″,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Puzzles”,”tag”:{“name”:”puzzles”,”slug”:”puzzles”,”term_id”:”542″,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:”Puzzles”,”slug”:”puzzles”,”term_id”:”546″,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”Category”,”label”:”Blog Posts”,”tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:”Abstractions blog”,”slug”:”abstractions”,”term_id”:”619″,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”news”,”label”:”News Articles”,”tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”},{“type”:”videos”,”label”:”Videos”,”tag”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”category”:{“name”:null,”slug”:null,”term_id”:null,”__typename”:”Term”},”__typename”:”SearchTopic”}],”searchSections”:[{“name”:”Mathematics”,”slug”:”mathematics”,”term_id”:”188″,”__typename”:”Term”},{“name”:”Physics”,”slug”:”physics”,”term_id”:”189″,”__typename”:”Term”},{“name”:”Biology”,”slug”:”biology”,”term_id”:”191″,”__typename”:”Term”},{“name”:”Computer Science”,”slug”:”computer-science”,”term_id”:”190″,”__typename”:”Term”}],”searchAuthors”:[{“id”:”38171″,”name”:”Adam Becker”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”28087″,”name”:”Adam Mann”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”29794″,”name”:”Alex Kontorovich”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”39302″,”name”:”Alexander Hellemans”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”56″,”name”:”Alla Katsnelson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”29458″,”name”:”Allison Whitten”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”73″,”name”:”Amanda Gefter”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”39164″,”name”:”Ana Kova”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”59″,”name”:”Andreas von Bubnoff”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”8728″,”name”:”Anil Ananthaswamy”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”11648″,”name”:”Ann Finkbeiner”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”42689″,”name”:”Annie Melchor”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”95″,”name”:”Ariel Bleicher”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”15493″,”name”:”Ashley Smart”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”450″,”name”:”Ashley Yeager”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”36490″,”name”:”Ben Brubaker”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”16315″,”name”:”Bill Andrews”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”2752″,”name”:”Bob Henderson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”15492″,”name”:”Brendan Z. Foster”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”68″,”name”:”Brooke Borel”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”62″,”name”:”Carl Zimmer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”13691″,”name”:”Caroline Lee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”13684″,”name”:”Caroline Lee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”50″,”name”:”Carrie Arnold”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”15142″,”name”:”Chanda Prescod-Weinstein”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”8084″,”name”:”Charlie Wood”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”742″,”name”:”Christie Wilcox”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”11543″,”name”:”Claudia Dreifus”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”57″,”name”:”Courtney Humphries”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”7262″,”name”:”Dalmeet Singh Chawla”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”70″,”name”:”Dan Falk”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”19918″,”name”:”Dana Najjar”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”13695″,”name”:”Daniel Garisto”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”32676″,”name”:”Daniel S. Freed”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”13724″,”name”:”David H. Freedman”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”26310″,”name”:”David S. Richeson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”30207″,”name”:”David Tse”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”19266″,”name”:”Devin Powell”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”13251″,”name”:”Diana Kwon”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”17000″,”name”:”Elena Renken”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”17149″,”name”:”Elizabeth Landau”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”5279″,”name”:”Elizabeth Preston”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”58″,”name”:”Elizabeth Svoboda”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”32612″,”name”:”Ellen Horne”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”27534″,”name”:”Emily Buder”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”25173″,”name”:”Emily Levesque”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”64″,”name”:”Emily Singer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”47″,”name”:”Erica Klarreich”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”14784″,”name”:”Erika K. Carlson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”98″,”name”:”Esther Landhuis”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”5830″,”name”:”Eva Silverstein”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”6793″,”name”:”Evelyn Lamb”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”75″,”name”:”Ferris Jabr”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”52″,”name”:”Frank Wilczek”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”69″,”name”:”Gabriel Popkin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”77″,”name”:”George Musser”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”19092″,”name”:”Grant Sanderson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”20557″,”name”:”Howard Lee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”66″,”name”:”Ingrid Daubechies”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”85″,”name”:”Ivan Amato”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”37141″,”name”:”Jake Buehler”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”12170″,”name”:”Janna Levin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”32″,”name”:”Jeanette Kazmierczak”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”51″,”name”:”Jennifer Ouellette”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”72″,”name”:”John Pavlus”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”16475″,”name”:”John Preskill”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”91″,”name”:”John Rennie”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”10351″,”name”:”Jonathan Lambert”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”31716″,”name”:”Jonathan O’Callaghan”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”1241″,”name”:”Jordana Cepelewicz”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”8463″,”name”:”Joshua Roebke”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”49″,”name”:”Joshua Sokol”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”16815″,”name”:”jye”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”67″,”name”:”K.C. Cole”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”37462″,”name”:”Karmela Padavic-Callaghan”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”87″,”name”:”Kat McGowan”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”36139″,”name”:”Katarina Zimmer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”20556″,”name”:”Katherine Harmon Courage”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”90″,”name”:”Katia Moskvitch”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”39551″,”name”:”Katie McCormick”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”27374″,”name”:”Kelsey Houston-Edwards”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”40″,”name”:”Kevin Hartnett”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”38413″,”name”:”Lakshmi Chandrasekaran”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”12570″,”name”:”Laura Poppick”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”38699″,”name”:”Leila Sloman”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”23451″,”name”:”Liam Drew”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”79″,”name”:”Liz Kruesi”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”38″,”name”:”Lucy Reading-Ikkanda”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”60″,”name”:”Maggie McKee”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”2333″,”name”:”Mallory Locklear”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”3569″,”name”:”Marcus Woo”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”414″,”name”:”Mark Kim-Mulgrew”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”20495″,”name”:”Matt Carlstrom”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”17147″,”name”:”Matthew Hutson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”30953″,”name”:”Max G. Levy”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”32437″,”name”:”Max Kozlov”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”38705″,”name”:”mcho”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”40613″,”name”:”Melanie Mitchell”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”7186″,”name”:”Melinda Wenner Moyer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”14093″,”name”:”Michael Harris”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”34″,”name”:”Michael Kranz”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”23″,”name”:”Michael Moyer”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”74″,”name”:”Michael Nielsen”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”19093″,”name”:”Michele Bannister”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”1472″,”name”:”Moira Chas”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”6476″,”name”:”Monique Brouillette”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”42264″,”name”:”Mordechai Rorvig”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”10″,”name”:”Natalie Wolchover”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”37605″,”name”:”Nick Thieme”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”43298″,”name”:”Nicole Yunger Halpern”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”37428″,”name”:”Nima Arkani-Hamed”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”19962″,”name”:”Nola Taylor Redd”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”24″,”name”:”Olena Shmahalo”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”1816″,”name”:”Patrick Honner”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”84″,”name”:”Peter Byrne”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”55″,”name”:”Philip Ball”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”31″,”name”:”Pradeep Mutalik”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”24011″,”name”:”Puja Changoiwala”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”100″,”name”:”Quanta Magazine”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”2784″,”name”:”R. Douglas Fields”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”26114″,”name”:”Rachel Crowell”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”9412″,”name”:”Raleigh McElvery”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”820″,”name”:”Ramin Skibba”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”1666″,”name”:”Rebecca Boyle”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”20950″,”name”:”Richard Masland”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”48″,”name”:”Robbert Dijkgraaf”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”80″,”name”:”Roberta Kwok”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”15681″,”name”:”Robin George Andrews”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”24577″,”name”:”Rodrigo Pérez Ortega”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”78″,”name”:”Sabine Hossenfelder”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”23845″,”name”:”Samuel Velasco”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”83″,”name”:”Sarah Lewin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”35441″,”name”:”Scott Aaronson”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”76″,”name”:”Sean B. Carroll”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”15680″,”name”:”Sean Carroll”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”7239″,”name”:”Shannon Hall”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”44197″,”name”:”Sheon Han”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”65″,”name”:”Siobhan Roberts”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”5944″,”name”:”Sophia Chen”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”61″,”name”:”Steph Yin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”63″,”name”:”Stephanie Bucklin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”26311″,”name”:”Stephanie DeMarco”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”71″,”name”:”Stephen Ornes”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”17148″,”name”:”Steve Nadis”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”13356″,”name”:”Steven Strogatz”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”17150″,”name”:”Susan D’Agostino”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”39768″,”name”:”Tamar Lichter Blanks”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”2960″,”name”:”Tara C. Smith”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”14785″,”name”:”Thomas Lewton”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”3″,”name”:”Thomas Lin”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”54″,”name”:”Tim Vernimmen”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”88″,”name”:”Tom Siegfried”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”12964″,”name”:”Vanessa Schipani”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”53″,”name”:”Veronique Greenwood”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”86″,”name”:”Virginia Hughes”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”3244″,”name”:”Viviane Callier”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”89″,”name”:”Wynne Parry”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”15913″,”name”:”XiaoZhi Lim”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”},{“id”:”42263″,”name”:”Yasemin Saplakoglu”,”__typename”:”AuthorList”}],”adBehavior”:”everywhere”,”adUrl”:”https://www.youtube.com/c/QuantaScienceChannel”,”adAlt”:”Watch and Learn “,”adImageHome”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/02/Youtube_Web-Default_260.jpg”,”adImageArticle”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/02/Youtube_Article_160.jpg”,”adImageTablet”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/02/Youtube_Tablet_890.jpg”,”adImageMobile”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2022/02/Youtube_Web-Default_260.jpg”,”trackingScripts”:”rnrn”},”theme”:{“page”:{“accent”:”#ff8600″,”text”:”#1a1a1a”,”background”:”white”},”header”:{“type”:”default”,”gradient”:{“color”:”white”},”solid”:{“primary”:”#1a1a1a”,”secondary”:”#999999″,”hover”:”#ff8600″},”transparent”:{“primary”:”white”,”secondary”:”white”,”hover”:”#ff8600″}}},”redirect”:null,”fallbackImage”:{“alt”:””,”caption”:””,”url”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2017/04/default.gif”,”width”:1200,”height”:600,”sizes”:{“thumbnail”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2017/04/default-520×260.gif”,”square_small”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2017/04/default-160×160.gif”,”square_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2017/04/default-520×520.gif”,”medium”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2017/04/default.gif”,”medium_large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2017/04/default-768×384.gif”,”large”:”https://d2r55xnwy6nx47.cloudfront.net/uploads/2017/04/default.gif”,”__typename”:”ImageSizes”},”__typename”:”Image”}},”modals”:{“loginModal”:false,”signUpModal”:false,”forgotPasswordModal”:false,”resetPasswordModal”:false,”lightboxModal”:false,”callback”:null,”props”:null},”podcast”:{“id”:null,”playing”:false,”duration”:0,”currentTime”:0},”user”:{“loggedIn”:false,”savedArticleIDs”:[],”userEmail”:””,”editor”:false},”comments”:{“open”:false},”cookies”:{“acceptedCookie”:false}}, env: { APP_URL: ‘https://www.quantamagazine.org’, NODE_ENV: ‘production’, WP_URL: ‘https://api.quantamagazine.org’, HAS_GOOGLE_ID: true, HAS_FACEBOOK_ID: true, }, } SOFTWARE